A 360° view of the inflammasome: Mechanisms of activation, cell death, and diseases.

Inflammasomes are critical sentinels of the innate immune system that respond to threats to the host through recognition of distinct molecules, known as pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs/DAMPs), or disruptions of cellular homeostasis, referred to as homeostasis-altering molecular processes (HAMPs) or effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Several distinct proteins nucleate inflammasomes, including NLRP1, CARD8, NLRP3, NLRP6, NLRC4/NAIP, AIM2, pyrin, and caspases-4/-5/-11. This diverse array of sensors strengthens the inflammasome response through redundancy and plasticity. Here, we present an overview of these pathways, outlining the mechanisms of inflammasome formation, subcellular regulation, and pyroptosis, and discuss the wide-reaching effects of inflammasomes in human disease.

D155Y substitution of SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a weakens binding with Caveolin-1.

The clinical manifestation of the recent pandemic COVID-19, caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, varies from mild to severe respiratory illness. Although environmental, demographic and co-morbidity factors have an impact on the severity of the disease, contribution of the mutations in each of the viral genes towards the degree of severity needs a deeper understanding for designing a better therapeutic approach against COVID-19. Open Reading Frame-3a (ORF3a) protein has been found to be mutated at several positions. In this work, we have studied the effect of one of the most frequently occurring mutants, D155Y of ORF3a protein, found in Indian COVID-19 patients. Using computational simulations we demonstrated that the substitution at 155th changed the amino acids involved in salt bridge formation, hydrogen-bond occupancy, interactome clusters, and the stability of the protein compared with the other substitutions found in Indian patients. Protein-protein docking using HADDOCK analysis revealed that substitution D155Y weakened the binding affinity of ORF3a with caveolin-1 compared with the other substitutions, suggesting its importance in the overall stability of ORF3a-caveolin-1 complex, which may modulate the virulence property of SARS-CoV-2.

Inflammasomes-New Contributors to Blood Diseases.

Inflammasomes are intracellular multimeric complexes that cleave the precursors of the IL-1 family of cytokines and various proteins, found predominantly in cells of hematopoietic origin. They consist of pattern-recognition receptors, adaptor domains, and the enzymatic caspase-1 domain. Inflammasomes become activated upon stimulation by various exogenous and endogenous agents, subsequently promoting and enhancing inflammatory responses. To date, their function has been associated with numerous pathologies. Most recently, many studies have focused on inflammasomes' contribution to hematological diseases. Due to aberrant expression levels, NLRP3, NLRP1, and NLRC4 inflammasomes were indicated as predominantly involved. The NLRP3 inflammasome correlated with the pathogenesis of non-Hodgkin lymphomas, multiple myeloma, acute myeloid leukemia, lymphoid leukemias, myelodysplastic neoplasms, graft-versus-host-disease, and sickle cell anemia. The NLRP1 inflammasome was associated with myeloma and chronic myeloid leukemia, whereas NLRC4 was associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Moreover, specific gene variants of the inflammasomes were linked to disease susceptibility. Despite the incomplete understanding of these correlations and the lack of definite conclusions regarding the therapeutic utility of inflammasome inhibitors, the available results provide a valuable basis for clinical applications and precede upcoming breakthroughs in the field of innovative treatments. This review summarizes the latest knowledge on inflammasomes in hematological diseases, indicates the potential limitations of the current research approaches, and presents future perspectives.

NLRP3 inflammasome: an important therapeutic target for SARS-CoV-2 infection

SARS-CoV-2, the pathogen of the COVID-19 pandemic, causes serious damage to human health and social stability.In severe COVID-19 cases, the infection triggers cytokine storm, resulting in multi-organ excessive inflammatory responses and even failure, which eventually leads to death.Recent studies have shown the activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor containing pyrin domain 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19.SARS-CoV-2 can activate NLRP3 inflammasome through several pathways, thereby inducing the release of a large number of pro-inflammatory cytokines.This article reviews the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection and the possible molecular mechanisms, and summarizes the progress in targeted inhibition of NLRP3 inflammation aiming to provide a new strategy for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

CLINICAL IMPROVEMENT IN PATIENTS WITH ME/CFS WITH SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF COLCHICINE AND SPIRONOLACTONE TARGETING INHIBITION OF INFLAMMASOME ACTIVITY

Background: Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/ Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) has been associated to Epstein Bar Virus (EBV), Coxsakie virus and Ross River virus infections. Recently a similar condition to ME/CFS has been described as 'Long Covid' associated to SARS-CoV-2. Patients with positive EBV serology and ME/CFS may be carriers of a chronic latent infection that translates in a chronic systemic inflammation with neuroinflammation. The activation of the immunologic cascade after a viral infection or vaccination can trigger the formation of Anti-idiotype antibodies (Ab2) and an activation of pyrin domain containing protein3 (NRLP3) inflammasome. The NRLP3 inflammasome is the pattern of activation for interleukin (IL1-beta) cytokine complex which is activated in inflammatory conditions (1). Colchicine is postulated to work by inhibiting tubulin polymerization and microtubule formation blocking inflammasome activation (2). Spironolactone increased the activity and number of macrophage angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors. In the microglia this effect may represent a reduction of neuro-inflammation (3). In this we present ME/CFS patients treated with the synergetic effect of Colchicine and Spironolactone to inhibit Inflammasome and decrease inflammation. Population and Method: 23 patients (19 females) with positive serology for EBV infection and ME/CFS were included. All the patients were treated with multivitamins. Patients were educated about benefit and adverse effects of spironolactone and colchicine before treatment. The starting dose of Spironolactone was 12.5 mg a day increased to 25 mg a day (during years 2019 to 2021). The introduction of Colchicine 0.5 mg/day on treatment plan was during year 2021. Patient follow-up was in the outpatient clinic and GP clinic. Results: Total 23 Patients 19 were Females age 37.3+28 and 4 were Males age 61+9. Two patients stop colchicine after 4 weeks. Improvement in cognitive skills was the early manifestation of spironolactone benefit. Patients reported to be less brain foggy, more alert, and they found it easier to focus when doing normal everyday activities. They were also less irritable by noise and light and described themselves to be able to multi-task again. There was an improvement in general condition and everyday activities four weeks after Colchicine started. Conclusion: Patients with ME/CFS improve their cognitive skills and everyday physical activity tolerance when treated with Colchicine and Spironolactone.

WORSENING OF LETHARGY POST SARS-COV-2 VACCINATION IN A PATIENT WITH ME/CFS

Introduction: Since the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus2) vaccination started there have been multiple reports of different off target adverse effects related to the vaccination, such as myocarditis, immune mediated thrombosis, thrombocytopenia and allergic reactions. W Murphy and Dan Longo in the NEJM November 2021 reported these adverse effects associated with Anti-idiotype antibodies (Ab2) in SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. The pathologic cascade of Ab2 is described in several ways as the antibodies can bind to the protective normal antibodies (Ab1) resulting in immune complex formation and clearance thus impairing Ab1 efficacy. Another action of the Ab2 could be inhibiting normal ligands affecting interaction with angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors or stimulating the ACE2 receptor and downregulating the ACE2 function. There is also a description of complementmediated and immune cell attack on ACE2 expressing cells (1). The case reported in this manuscript is related to a severe deterioration in a male with previous diagnose of ME/CFS with worsening lethargy and cognitive skills after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. The outstanding clinical improvement after starting oral Colchicine is the reason for this paper. Case Report: A 46-year-old male with a previous history of Sarcoidosis and Haemochromatosis had ME/CFS since 2016. He was followed up at Noosa Hospital clinic related to his ME/CFS. His general symptoms related to this condition were under control and he was able to work and study at the University. After the second dose of his SARS-CoV-2 (Pfizer -BioNTech COVID-19) vaccination in August 2021 his general condition deteriorated. During September-October 2021 his cognitive skills declined and he had to stop his university studies. The patient also stopped driving his car because of lethargy and could not do any sport recreational activity. Because of ME/CFS he was on treatment with multivitamins and low dose Naltrexone and Spironolactone before vaccination. After the ME/CFS clinical deterioration the decision was to start Colchicine 0.5 mg a day (November 2021). After four weeks of Colchicine plus his previous medication, his level of energy and cognitive skills recovered to pre vaccination status. Discussion: The immunologic cascade after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination triggered by Ab2 ended in activation of pyrin domain containing protein3 (NRLP3 Inflammasome). This is the pattern of activation for interleukin (IL-1beta). This may determine a general increase in the systemic and microglia inflammation as described in ME/CFS. The clinical manifestation in the present case was worsening in the symptoms of the ME/CFS. The patient was already on Spironolactone targeting the increase on number of macrophages ACE2 receptors as immune modulation. An anti-inflammatory synergy between Colchicine and Spironolactone is currently the focus of research in atherosclerosis. Colchicine has a direct effect on phagocytes leading to inflammasome inhibition and impaired production of IL-1 beta. Conclusion: The Colchicine had a beneficial effect in recovering this patient from an exacerbation of his ME/CFS induced by SARS-CoV-2 vaccination.

Clinical aspects and presumed etiology of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C): A review.

The COVID-19 outbreak sparked by SARS-CoV-2, begat significant rates of malady worldwide, where children with an abnormal post-COVID ailment called the Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome (MIS-C), were reported by April 2020. Here we have reviewed the clinical characteristics of the pediatric patients and the prognosis currently being utilized. A vivid comparison of MIS-C with other clinical conditions has been done. We have addressed the probable etiology and fundamental machinery of the inflammatory reactions, which drive organ failure. The involvement of androgen receptors portrays the likelihood of asymptomatic illness in children below adolescence, contributing to the concept of antibody-dependent enhancement.

SARS-Cov2 acute and post-active infection in the context of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases.

The clinical and immunological spectrum of acute and post-active COVID-19 syndrome overlaps with criteria used to characterize autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Indeed, following SARS-Cov2 infection, the innate immune response is altered with an initial delayed production of interferon type I (IFN-I), while the NF-kappa B and inflammasome pathways are activated. In lung and digestive tissues, an alternative and extrafollicular immune response against SARS-Cov2 takes place with, consequently, an altered humoral and memory T cell response leading to breakdown of tolerance with the emergence of autoantibodies. However, the risk of developing severe COVID-19 among SLE and RA patients did not exceed the general population except in those having pre-existing neutralizing autoantibodies against IFN-I. Treatment discontinuation rather than COVID-19 infection or vaccination increases the risk of developing flares. Last but not least, a limited number of case reports of individuals having developed SLE or RA following COVID-19 infection/vaccination have been reported. Altogether, the SARS-Cov2 pandemic represents an unique opportunity to investigate the dangerous interplay between the immune response against infectious agents and autoimmunity, and to better understand the triggering role of infection as a risk factor in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory disease development.

Thermal dysregulation in patients with multiple sclerosis during SARS-CoV-2 infection. The potential therapeutic role of exercise.

Thermoregulation is a homeostatic mechanism that is disrupted in some neurological diseases. Patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) are susceptible to increases in body temperature, especially with more severe neurological signs. This condition can become intolerable when these patients suffer febrile infections such as coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). We review the mechanisms of hyperthermia in patients with MS, and they may encounter when infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Finally, the thermoregulatory role and relevant adaptation to regular physical exercise are summarized.

COVID-19 pandemic in patients with familial mediterranean fever;The possible protective role of colchicine in COVID-19 symptoms

Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) is the most common autoinflammatory disease characterized by recurrent fever and attacks of polyserositis, arthritis, erysipelas-like erythema. Colchicine;has been the main therapeutic agent in FMF patients since 1972. The Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) was first identified in a group of patients with respiratory symptoms in Wuhan, China, and affected the whole world.This study aims to evaluate the possible correlation between the frequency and severity of FMF attacks and COVID-19 symptoms after colchicine use in FMF patients with pathogenic/likely pathogenic MEFV mutation(s) during the pandemic. We included FMF patients who applied to Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Hospital, Medical Genetics Department between 01.01.2010-15.03.2020 and having variable. Pathogenic/likely pathogenic MEFV mutations detected by variable methods (pyrosequencing, NGS, Sanger sequencing, fragment analysis, real-time PCR, etc.). A 19-question questionnaire was created online via Google Drive and the questionnaire link was sent to patients' mobile phone via SMS. The responses received until 31.12.2020 were evaluated and analyzed with the IBM SPSS Statistics 25. Permission was obtained from the local ethics committee and the ethics committee of the Ministry of Health to conduct this research. We obtained 110 responses that met the research criteria. The number of patients with COVID-19 symptoms was 13(%11.8). While there was no statistically significant difference in frequency and severity of attacks between the groups of patients with and without symptoms of COVID-19, a significant difference was found in the need to increase the colchicine dose. Furthermore, while the rate of patients who had an FMF attack (n=45)(46.4%) and who didn't (n=52)(53.6%) was close to each other in those without symptoms, the rate of patients who had an attack was significantly higher with symptoms (n=12)(92.3%). It is reported that the symptoms in FMF and COVID-19 diseases may have arisen as a result of similar inflammatory responses. Although the frequency and severity of attacks did not change among our patients with COVID-19 symptoms, the need to increase the colchicine dose and the higher rate of individuals who had an attack may be due to this clinical similarity. There are also reports on the use of colchicine in individuals diagnosed with COVID-19. Due to the small number of participants and the inability to clearly evaluate other factors that may affect the course of the disease, more comprehensive studies are needed on this subject.

Familial mediterranean fever and COVID-19: A monocentric Italian study

Introduction: The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Its rapid spreading all over the world has caused a pandemia that has a deleterious impact on public health worldwide. The COVID-19 is associated with cytokines dysregulation, increased IL-1β tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and IL-6 release with hyperinflammation and risk of cytokine storm syndrome. Autoinflammatory diseases (AID) are rare, potentially life-threatening conditions caused by pathogenic gene variants encoding for inflammasomes leading to excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The innate immune system that plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of Familiar Mediterranean Fever (FMF) is also essential in antiviral defense. Colchicine is the main drug therapy for FMF and fulfills its role with the inhibition of microtubule polymerization and pyrin inflammasome. Colchicine effects on COVID-19 have not yet been evaluated in trials, but some studies on COVID-19 patients under colchicine treatment for FMF arouse interest. Anti-SARS-COV-2 vaccination is of key role for COVID-19 eradication worldwide, few data are available for AID patients. Objectives: This study aims to describe the COVID-19 impact on patients under regular treatment for AID and their outcome after anti- SARS-COV-2 vaccination. Methods: An observational monocentric study has been conduct on a cohort of Italian AID patients who were under regular follow up for their disorders. Data have been collected both retrospectively and prospectively. Results: Seventy-eight adult AID patients (65 FMF, 5 PFAPA, 3 FCAS, 2 TRAPS, 2 Behcet Disease, 1 SAPHO,) followed at Center for Primary Immunodeficiency and Autoinflammatory disorders have been considered. Among FMF patients, eight communicated to the center when they got COVID-19 and were followed by regular phone calls. The mean age was 36.9 years, (range 27-60) and they had no other comorbidities. All the patients were on regular colchicine therapy and were on complete remission before COVID-19. They were started with azithromycin (with precaution for colchicine interference) and four were treated also with low-weight heparin prophylaxis. None of the patients need oxygen or hospitalization. Two sisters (MEFV genotype M694V/V726A) had FMF attack relapsing during COVID-19 disease, despite regular colchicine therapy. All the cases recovered from COVID-19 without complications. None of the other AID patients declared to have COVID-19, and all the swabs, that they did when they had symptoms suspected for, were negative. Genetics of FMF patients' with COVID-19 - 2 M694V/V726A - 2 M694V Pediatric Rheumatology 2021, 19(Suppl 1):155 Page 205 of 229 - 1 M694V/M694V - 1 M680IGC/E148Q - 1 R761H/E148Q - 1 -/- Till now 31 AID patients have been vaccinated (22 FMF, 4 PFAPA, 3 FCAS, 2 Behcet disease). No adverse reactions were observed. All the patients who had COVID-19 have been vaccinated (Pfizer/ Biontech or Moderna), two had FMF attack. Two patients with PFAPA had a mild attack. Post-vaccination titre was checked after 4 week since 2nd dose for those patients who were under anti-IL inhibitors (n=5) or anti-TNF (n=1). Conclusion: In this study, the FMF patients who had COVID-19 under chronic colchicine treatment had a mild/moderate disease and recovered without consequences. According to other studies, FMF under colchicine treatment seems not to be a risk factor for severe COVID-19 and colchicine anti-inflammatory effect worths to be considered for treatment in COVID-19. Anti-SARS-COV-2 vaccination in AID patients of this study has been observed to be safe and effective.

Inflammasome-Mediated Immunogenicity of Clinical and Experimental Vaccine Adjuvants.

In modern vaccines, adjuvants can be sophisticated immunological tools to promote robust and long-lasting protection against prevalent diseases. However, there is an urgent need to improve immunogenicity of vaccines in order to protect mankind from life-threatening diseases such as AIDS, malaria or, most recently, COVID-19. Therefore, it is important to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of action of vaccine adjuvants, which generally trigger the innate immune system to enhance signal transition to adaptive immunity, resulting in pathogen-specific protection. Thus, improved understanding of vaccine adjuvant mechanisms may aid in the design of "intelligent" vaccines to provide robust protection from pathogens. Various commonly used clinical adjuvants, such as aluminium salts, saponins or emulsions, have been identified as activators of inflammasomes - multiprotein signalling platforms that drive activation of inflammatory caspases, resulting in secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines of the IL-1 family. Importantly, these cytokines affect the cellular and humoral arms of adaptive immunity, which indicates that inflammasomes represent a valuable target of vaccine adjuvants. In this review, we highlight the impact of different inflammasomes on vaccine adjuvant-induced immune responses regarding their mechanisms and immunogenicity. In this context, we focus on clinically relevant adjuvants that have been shown to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome and also present various experimental adjuvants that activate the NLRP3-, NLRC4-, AIM2-, pyrin-, or non-canonical inflammasomes and could have the potential to improve future vaccines. Together, we provide a comprehensive overview on vaccine adjuvants that are known, or suggested, to promote immunogenicity through inflammasome-mediated signalling.

Repurposing colchicine's journey in view of drug-to-drug interactions. A review.

Colchicine's medical evolution is historically bound to the Mediterranean basin, since remarkable researchers from this region underscored its valuable properties. With the passing of years colchicine became an essential pharmaceutical substance for the treatment of rheumatologic and cardiovascular diseases. In light of recent findings, the therapeutic value of colchicine has grown. In clinical practice, colchicine remains underutilized in view of its proven efficacy and safety. Its complex pharmacokinetics and multifaceted anti-inflammatory role remain under investigation. The current review addresses the safe administration of colchicine in view of key drug to drug interactions. Finally, we are briefly presenting colchicine's future potential applications.

RAAS, ACE2 and COVID-19; a mechanistic review.

The use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients has been claimed as associated with the risk of COVID-19 infection and its subsequent morbidities and mortalities. These claims were resulting from the possibility of upregulating the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), facilitation of SARS-CoV-2 entry, and increasing the susceptibility of infection in such treated cardiovascular patients. ACE2 and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) products have a critical function in controlling the severity of lung injury, fibrosis, and failure following the initiation of the disease. This review is to clarify the mechanisms beyond the possible deleterious effects of angiotensin II (Ang II), and the potential protective role of angiotensin 1-7 (Ang 1-7) against pulmonary fibrosis, with a subsequent discussion of the latest updates on ACEIs/ARBs use and COVID-19 susceptibility in the light of these mechanisms and biochemical explanation.

Are Migraine Patients at Increased Risk for Symptomatic Coronavirus Disease 2019 Due to Shared Comorbidities?

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has rapidly transformed the whole world and forced us to look through comorbid diseases and risk factors from a different perspective. COVID-19 shows some inherent risk factors like cardiovascular comorbidities independent from age, gender, and geographic location. One of the most peculiar features of the COVID-19 pandemic is that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 respiratory infections disproportionately impact patients with hypertension, diabetes, and other cardiovascular comorbidities rather than those with allergic respiratory diseases and immune-compromised conditions. Migraine is a complex neuro-vasculo-inflammatory disorder that is also packed frequently with certain medical conditions including vascular disorders, hypertension, allergic diseases such as asthma and systemic inflammatory disorders. Accordingly, 2 different questions arise during the pandemic: (1) Do share comorbidities of cardiovascular diseases and hypertension increase the risk of symptomatic COVID-19 for migraine patients? (2) Do comorbid allergic and atopic diseases, including asthma act as opposite influencers alongside with female gender? This paper focuses on the co-existence of comorbidities of COVID-19, in comparison with migraine, based on a wide clinical dataset and available reports. Discussed mechanisms include potential strategic roles of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, angiotensin-II, and nucleotide oligomerization domain-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 inflammasome, playing remarkable parts in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and migraine. There are also some clues about the importance of endothelial and pericyte dysfunction and neuroinflammation in COVID-19 infection, related to complications and survival of the patients. The large epidemiological studies as well as basic research, focusing on migraine patients with COVID-19 will clarify these vital questions during the upcoming periods.

Familial Mediterranean Fever and COVID-19: Friends or Foes?

Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) and COVID-19 show a remarkable overlap of clinical symptoms and similar laboratory findings. Both are characterized by fever, abdominal/chest pain, elevation of C-reactive protein, and leukocytosis. In addition, colchicine and IL-1 inhibitors treatments that are effective in controlling inflammation in FMF patients have recently been proposed for off-label use in COVID-19 patients. Thus, FMF may resemble a milder recapitulation of the cytokine storm that is a hallmark of COVID-19 patients progressing to severe disease. We analyzed the sequence of the MEFV-encoded Pyrin protein - whose mutations cause FMF- in mammals, bats and pangolin. Intriguingly, although Pyrin is extremely conserved in species that are considered either a reservoir or intermediate hosts for SARS-CoV-2, some of the most common FMF-causing variants in humans are present as wildtype residues in these species. We propose that in humans, Pyrin may have evolved to fight highly pathogenic infections.

History of the Plague: An Ancient Pandemic for the Age of COVID-19.

During the fourteenth century, the bubonic plague or Black Death killed more than one third of Europe or 25 million people. Those afflicted died quickly and horribly from an unseen menace, spiking high fevers with suppurative buboes (swellings). Its causative agent is Yersinia pestis, creating recurrent plague cycles from the Bronze Age into modern-day California and Mongolia. Plague remains endemic in Madagascar, Congo, and Peru. This history of medicine review highlights plague events across the centuries. Transmission is by fleas carried on rats, although new theories include via human body lice and infected grain. We discuss symptomatology and treatment options. Pneumonic plague can be weaponized for bioterrorism, highlighting the importance of understanding its clinical syndromes. Carriers of recessive familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) mutations have natural immunity against Y. pestis. During the Black Death, Jews were blamed for the bubonic plague, perhaps because Jews carried FMF mutations and died at lower plague rates than Christians. Blaming minorities for epidemics echoes across history into our current coronavirus pandemic and provides insightful lessons for managing and improving its outcomes.